Kinetics, kinematics, and efficiency modeling of two arm swing strategies within the swimming kick-start

Gao, Q., He, Z., Liu, G., Jin, X. & Zhu, H. Phase-specific determinants of 100 m freestyle efficiency in elite swimmers. Sci. Rep. 15, 19394. (2025).

Google Scholar 

Barlow, H., Halaki, M., Stuelcken, M., Greene, A. & Sinclair, P. J. The impact of various kick begin positions on OMEGA OSB11 blocks on free swimming time to 15m in developmental stage swimmers. Hum. Mov. Sci. 34, 178–186. (2014).

Google Scholar 

Tor, E., Pease, D. L. & Ball, Ok. A. Key parameters of the swimming begin and their relationship to start out efficiency. J. Sports Sci. 33, 1313–1321. (2015).

Google Scholar 

Thng, S., Pearson, S. & Keogh, J. W. L. Relationships between dry-land resistance coaching and swim begin efficiency and results of such coaching on the swim begin: A scientific evaluation. Sports Med. 49 (12), 1957–1973. (2019).

Google Scholar 

García-Ramos, A. et al. Relationship between completely different push-off variables and begin efficiency in skilled swimmers. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 15 (8), 687–695. (2015).

Google Scholar 

Peterson Silveira, R. et al. Key determinants of time to five m in numerous ventral swimming begin strategies. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 18 (10), 1317–1326. (2018).

Google Scholar 

Hermosilla, F. et al. Which variables might have an effect on underwater glide efficiency after a swimming begin? Eur. J. Sport Sci. 22 (8), 1141–1148. (2022).

Google Scholar 

Matúš, I. et al. Foot placement within the primary place on the beginning block OSB12 of younger aggressive swimmers. Sports 12 (2), 42. (2024).

Google Scholar 

Welcher, R. L., Hinrichs, R. N. & George, T. R. Front- or rear-weighted monitor begin or seize begin: which is the very best for feminine swimmers? Sports Biomech. 7 (1), 100–113. (2008).

Google Scholar 

Seifert, L., Vantorre, J., Chollet, D., Toussaint, H. M. & Vilas-Boas, J. P. Different profiles of the aerial begin part in entrance crawl. J. Strength. Cond Res. 24 (2), 507–516. (2010).

Google Scholar 

Lees, A., Vanrenterghem, J. & De Clercq, D. Understanding how an arm swing enhances efficiency within the vertical bounce. J. Biomech. 37 (12), 1929–1940. (2004).

Google Scholar 

Ashby, B. M. & Heegaard, J. H. Role of arm movement within the standing lengthy bounce. J. Biomech. 35 (12), 1631–1637. (2002).

Google Scholar 

Ashby, B. M. & Delp, S. L. Optimal management simulations reveal mechanisms by which arm motion improves standing lengthy bounce efficiency. J. Biomech. 39, 1726–1734. (2006).

Google Scholar 

Bowers, J. & Cavanagh, P. A biomechanical comparability of the seize and standard begins in aggressive swimming. In: Lewillie L., Clarys J.P., (eds.), Swimming II: Proceedings of the second worldwide symposium on biomechanics in swimming. 225–231 (Brussels, Belgium. Baltimore, London, Tokyo: University Park Press, (1975).

Maglischo, E. Swimming quickest. The important reference on approach, coaching, and program design (Human Kinetics, 2003).

Vantorre, J., Chollet, D. & Seifert, L. Biomechanical evaluation of the swim-start: a evaluation. J. Sports Sci. Med. 13 (2), 223–231 (2014).

Google Scholar 

Ayalon, A., van Gheluwe, B. & Kanitz, M. A comparability of 4 types of racing begin in swimming. In: Lewillie L., Clarys J.P. (eds.), Swimming II: Proceedings of the second worldwide symposium on biomechanics in swimming. 233–240 (Brussels, Belgium. Baltimore, London, Tokyo: University Park Press, (1975).

Galbraith, H., Scurr, J., Hencken, C., Wood, L. & Graham-Smith, P. Biomechanical comparability of the monitor begin and the modified one-handed monitor begin in aggressive swimming: an intervention research. J. Appl. Biomech. 24 (4), 307–315. (2008).

Google Scholar 

Calderbank, J. A., Comfort, P. & McMahon, J. J. Association of leaping skill and most power with dive distance in swimmers. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 16 (2), 296–303. (2021).

Google Scholar 

World Aquatics. Swimming Points. World Aquatics. (2026). Available from: https://www.worldaquatics.com/swimming/points

Ruiz-Navarro, J. J., López-Belmonte, Ó., Gay, A., Cuenca-Fernandez, F. & Arellano, R. A brand new mannequin of efficiency classification to standardize the analysis leads to swimming. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 23, 478–488. (2022).

Google Scholar 

Rudnik, D. M., Rejman, M. & Vilas-Boas, J. P. The kinematic profile of ventral swimming begin: intercourse variety. Front. Physiol. 14, 1157359. (2023).

Google Scholar 

Manoj, Ok. & Senthamarai Kannan, Ok. Comparison of strategies for detecting outliers. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 4 (9), 709–714 (2013).

Google Scholar 

Fletcher, G. F. et al. Exercise requirements for testing and coaching: a scientific assertion from the American Heart Association. Circulation 128 (8), 873–934. (2013).

Google Scholar 

Warrier, A. A. et al. Performance-enhancing medication in wholesome athletes: An umbrella evaluation of systematic opinions and meta-analyses. Sports Health. 16 (5), 695–705. (2024).

Google Scholar 

Hancock, A. P., Sparks, Ok. E. & Kullman, E. L. Postactivation potentiation enhances swim efficiency in collegiate swimmers. J. Strength. Cond Res. 29 (4), 912–917. (2015).

Google Scholar 

Bogdanis, G. C., Nevill, M. E., Lakomy, H. Ok. A. & Boobis, L. H. Power output and muscle metabolism throughout and following restoration from 10 and 20 s of maximal dash train in people. Acta Physiol. Scand. 163 (3), 261–272. (1998).

Google Scholar 

World Aquatics (eds.) Swimming services and gear. Competition rules. 70 (Lausanne: Switzerland, 2026). Available from: https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2026/02/18/e6815ecc-06d9-4f0b-98e9-4c441cf5e6a3/2026-02-18_World-Aquatics_CR-Final.pdf

Instrumente, A. G. & Group (eds) Performance evaluation system for swimming begins, turns and relay changeovers. Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland, (2019).

Serdar, C. C., Cihan, M., Yücel, D. & Serdar, M. A. Sample dimension, energy and impact dimension revisited: simplified and sensible approaches in pre-clinical, medical and laboratory research. Biochem. Med. (Zagreb). 31 (1), 010502. (2021).

Google Scholar 

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G. & Buchner, A. G*Power 3: a versatile statistical energy evaluation program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Res. Methods. 39, 175–191. (2007).

Google Scholar 

Hopkins, W. G., Schabort, E. J. & Hawley, J. A. Reliability of energy in bodily efficiency checks. Sports Med. 31 (3), 211–234. (2001).

Google Scholar 

Networks, J. A. M. A. (ed) AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and11th, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2020). Available from: https://academic.oup.com/amamanualofstyle

Sullivan, G. M. & Feinn, R. Using impact size-or why the p worth shouldn’t be sufficient. J. Grad Med. Educ. 4 (3), 279–282. (2012).

Google Scholar 

Rosenthal, J. A. Qualitative descriptors of power of affiliation and impact dimension. J. Social Serv. Res. 21 (4), 37–59. (1996).

Google Scholar 

Cohen, J. Statistical energy evaluation for the behavioral sciences 2nd edn (Erlbaum, 1988).

Coolican, H. Research strategies and statistics in psychology fifth edn (Routledge, 2009).

Schober, P., Boer, C. & Schwarte, L. A. Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and interpretation. Anesth. Analg. 126 (5), 1763–1768. (2018).

Google Scholar 

Finch, W. H. & Finch, M. E. Regularization strategies for becoming linear fashions with small pattern sizes: Fitting the Lasso estimator utilizing R. Practical Assess. Res. Evaluation. 21 (1), 7. (2016).

Google Scholar 

Bunea, F. Consistent choice by way of the Lasso for prime dimensional approximating regression fashions. IMS Collections. 3, 122–137. (2008).

Google Scholar 

Tibshirani, R. J. The lasso downside and uniqueness. Electron. J. Statist. 7, 1456–1490. (2013).

Google Scholar 

Alhamzawi, R. & Ali, H. T. M. The Bayesian adaptive lasso regression. Math. Biosci. 303 (3), 75–82. (2018).

Google Scholar 

Arlot, S. & Celisse, A. A survey of cross-validation procedures for mannequin choice. Stat. Surv. 4, 40–79. (2010).

Google Scholar 

Przednowek, Ok., Iskra, J., Maszczyk, A. & Nawrocka, M. Regression shrinkage and neural fashions in predicting the outcomes of 400-metres hurdles races. Biol. Sport. 33 (4), 415–421. (2016).

Google Scholar 

Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R. & Friedman, J. The parts of statistical studying: information mining, inference, and prediction 2nd edn (Springer, 2009).

Keiner, M. et al. The affect of upper- and lower-body most power on swim block begin, flip, and total swim efficiency in dash swimming. J. Strength. Cond Res. 35 (10), 2839–2845. (2021).

Google Scholar 

Hara, M., Shibayama, A., Takeshita, D. & Fukashiro, S. The impact of arm swing on decrease extremities in vertical leaping. J. Biomech. 39 (13), 2503–2511. (2006).

Google Scholar 

Slawson, S. E., Conway, P. P., Cossor, J., Chakravorti, N. & West, A. A. The categorisation of swimming begin efficiency with regards to drive era on the primary block and footrest elements of the Omega OSB11 begin blocks. J. Sports Sci. 31 (5), 468–478. (2013).

Google Scholar 

Ikeda, Y. et al. Functional position of the back and front legs throughout a monitor begin with particular reference to an inverted pendulum mannequin in faculty swimmers. J. Appl. Biomech. 32 (5), 462–468. (2016).

Google Scholar 

Lyttle, A., Wilson, G. & Ostrowski, Ok. Enhancing efficiency: Maximal energy versus mixed weights and plyometrics coaching. J. Strength. Cond Res. 10, 173–179 (1996).

Google Scholar 

Cheng, Ok. B., Wang, C. H., Chen, H. C., Wu, C. D. & Chiu, H. T. The mechanisms that allow arm movement to boost vertical bounce performance-a simulation research. J. Biomech. 41 (9), 1847–1854. (2008).

Google Scholar 

Ozeki, Ok., Suito, H., Sakurai, S. & Urata, T. Roles of the extremities throughout kick begin in aggressive swimming. Int. Soc. Biomech. Sports Proc. Archive. 35 (1), 279–664 (2017). (Cologne, Germany, 2017).

Google Scholar 

van Dijk, M. P., Beek, P. J. & van Soest, A. J. Ok. Predicting dive begin efficiency from kinematic variables at water entry in (sub-)elite swimmers. PLoS One. 5 (10), e0241345. (2020).

Google Scholar 

Wądrzyk, Ł., Staszkiewicz, R., Kryst, Ł. & Żegleń, M. Kinematic evaluation of above- and underwater swim begin phases of male swimmers aged 16–18 years. Hum. Mov. 23 (4), 123–132. (2022).

Google Scholar 

Breed, R. & McElroy, G. Ok. A biomechanical comparability of the seize, swing and monitor begins in swimming. J. Hum. Mov. Stud. 39, 277–293 (2000).

Google Scholar 

Takeda, T., Ichikawa, H., Tsubakimoto, S. & Nomura, T. In: Nomura T., Ungerechts, B. (eds.), Effect of take-off angle on begin efficiency in swim-start. 1st International Scientific Conference of Aquatic Space Activities. 374–379 (Tsukaba: University of Tsukaba, 2008).

Thow, J., Naemi, R. & Sanders, R. Comparison of modes of suggestions on glide efficiency in swimming. J. Sports Sci. 30 (1), 43–52 (2012).

Google Scholar 

Kiuchi, H., Nakashima, M., Cheng, Ok. B. & Hubbard, M. Modeling fluid forces within the dive begin of aggressive swimming. J. Biomech. Sci. Eng. 5 (4), 314–328. (2010).

Google Scholar 

Slawson, H., Tsubakimoto, S. & Nomura, T. In: Nomura T., Ungerechts, B. (eds.), Effect of take-off angle on begin efficiency in swim-start. 1st International Scientific Conference of Aquatic Space Activities. 374–379 (Tsukaba: University of Tsukaba, (2008).

Toussaint, H. M., Hollander, A. P., van den Berg, C. & Vorontsov, A. Biomechanics of swimming. In Exercise and Sport Science (eds Garrett, W. E. & Kirkendall, D. T.) 639–660 (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2000).

Lyttle, A., Blanksby, B., Elliott, B. & Lloyd, D. The position of drag within the streamlined glide. J. Swim Res. 13, 15–22 (1998).

Google Scholar 

Novais, M. L. et al. The impact of depth on drag through the streamlined glide: A 3-dimensional CFD evaluation. J. Hum. Kinet. 33, 55–62. (2012).

Google Scholar 

Pereira, S., Ruschel, C. & Araùjo, L. In Biomechanical evaluation of the underwater part in swimming begin. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming X. Suppl. 2, (eds Vilas-Boas, J. P. et al.) 79–81 (Porto: Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto, 2006).

Tor, E., Fischer, S. & Kibele, A. In: Fernandes R.J. (ed.), The swimming begin: a evaluation of the primary components surrounding the kick begin approach. The Science of Swimming and Aquatic Activities. 1–27. (New York: Nova Publisher Inc, 2018).

de Jesus, Ok. et al. Are the brand new beginning block services helpful for backstroke begin efficiency? J. Sports Sci. 34, 871–877. (2016).

Google Scholar 

Burkett, B., Mellifont, R. & Mason, B. The affect of swimming begin elements for chosen Olympics and Paralympic swimmers. J. Appl. Biomech. 2, 134–141. (2010).

Google Scholar 

Narita, Ok., Nakashima, M. & Takagi, H. Developing a technique for estimating the drag in front-crawl swimming at varied velocities. J. Biomech. 54, 123–128. (2017).

Google Scholar 

Naemi, R., Easson, W. J. & Sanders, R. H. Hydrodynamic glide effectivity in swimming. J. Sci. Med. Sport. 13 (4), 444–451. (2010).

Google Scholar 

Ruschel, C., Araujo, L. G., Pereira, S. M. & Roesler, H. In: Menzel H.J., Chagas M.H. (eds.), Kinematical evaluation of the swimming begin: Block, flight and underwater phases. XXV International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. 385–388 (Ouro Preto: Brazil, 2007).

Burkhardt, D. et al. Key efficiency indicators and leg positioning for the kick-start in aggressive swimmers. Sports Biomech. 22 (6), 752–766. (2023).

Google Scholar 

Bartlett, R. Introduction to Sports Biomechanics: Analysing Human Movement Patterns third edn (Routledge, 2014).

Fischer, S. & Kibele, A. The biomechanical construction of swim begin efficiency. Sports Biomech. 15 (4), 397–408. (2016).

Google Scholar