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This examine aimed to determine gender-specific sociodemographic and life-style elements related to frailty amongst Korean older adults. We performed a cross-sectional evaluation utilizing information from the 2014–2019 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, together with 6,556 individuals aged 65 years and older. Frailty was outlined by the Fried phenotype. Multivariable logistic regression fashions have been used to look at gender-specific associations between frailty and sociodemographic elements (age, training, marital standing, family revenue, family sort, and physique mass index) in addition to life-style elements (smoking, alcohol consumption, meals with household prior to now 12 months, power consumption, variety of persistent ailments, and self-rated well being standing), with mutual adjustment for all listed covariates in a single totally adjusted mannequin. The prevalence of frailty was 20.6% in ladies and 11.5% in males. Among ladies, present smoking [odds ratio (95% confidence interval), 2.22 (1.16–4.26)] and sharing meals with household within the morning [1.42 (1.05–1.93)] have been related to an elevated danger of frailty. For males, excessive family revenue [0.51 (0.27–0.99)] and better power consumption [>2,120 kcal; 0.49 (0.34–0.71)] have been related to a decreased danger of frailty. In each women and men, a number of persistent ailments and poor self-rated well being have been considerably related to an elevated danger of frailty. Frailty was related to varied sociodemographic and life-style traits in each women and men. The associations with a number of elements, equivalent to smoking, meal patterns, and family revenue, differed by gender. This examine highlights distinct gender-specific predictors of frailty amongst older Korean adults, emphasizing the necessity for tailor-made and built-in public well being prevention methods.
Citation: Kim S, Lee H, Park N, Choi E, Kang M (2026) Gender-specific sociodemographic and life-style elements related to frailty standing amongst Korean older adults. PLoS One 21(5):
e0348604.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348604
Editor: Vasuki Rajaguru, Yonsei University Medical Center: Yonsei University Health System, KOREA, REPUBLIC OF
Received: August 14, 2025; Accepted: April 19, 2026; Published: May 8, 2026
Copyright: © 2026 Kim et al. This is an open entry article distributed beneath the phrases of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution, and copy in any medium, supplied the unique creator and supply are credited.
Data Availability: The KNHANES database is publicly accessible on the KNHANES web site (https://knhanes.kdca.go.kr/knhanes/main.do).
Funding: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the Korean authorities (Ministry of Science and ICT; grant quantity RS-2026-25495997) awarded to MK. The funder had no position in examine design, information assortment, or manuscript preparation.
Competing pursuits: The authors have declared that no competing pursuits exist.
Abbreviations:
BMI,
physique mass index; CIs,
confidence intervals; KNHANES,
Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; ORs,
odds ratios; SE,
customary error.
Korea is experiencing fast inhabitants getting old, with the proportion of people aged 65 and older reaching 19% as of 2024 [1]. This signifies that Korea is getting nearer to getting into a super-aged society in accordance with the United Nations (UN) customary that classifies a society as an getting old society if the aged inhabitants ratio, which is the proportion of the inhabitants aged 65 or older, is 7% or extra of the entire inhabitants, an aged society whether it is 14% or extra, and a super-aged society whether it is 20% or extra [2]. Amid the fast development of inhabitants getting old in Korea, this development turns into much more pronounced when in comparison with different main developed nations. For instance, as of 2024, Japan has the very best proportion of individuals aged 65 and older on the planet at 29.3%, a determine projected to rise to 36.3% by 2045 [3]. In addition, Spain, which has a inhabitants dimension much like that of Korea, can also be anticipated to see its aged inhabitants improve considerably from 17.4% in 2025 to 31.9% by 2049, indicating that inhabitants getting old is intensifying not solely in Korea but in addition in a number of different nations [1,4].
In gentle of those worldwide traits, projections by Statistics Korea point out that the proportion of the aged inhabitants in Korea is predicted to succeed in 29% by 2028 and 39.8% by 2049, surpassing the speed of getting old noticed in Japan. Furthermore, the getting old course of in Korea is progressing extra quickly than in Spain, regardless of their comparable inhabitants sizes. These projections spotlight that the proportion of people aged 65 and older in Korea will proceed to extend sharply, underscoring the pressing want for heightened social consciousness and coverage measures regarding aged well being. In specific, well being standing is a significant factor influencing the standard of lifetime of the aged, and due to this fact, preparations are wanted to enhance the well being of the aged in a super-aging society [5].
The rising aged inhabitants additional emphasizes the necessity for analysis on frailty. Frailty is an age-related syndrome characterised by elevated vulnerability to stressors and a decline in physiological reserves and bodily perform, which locations people at larger danger for varied ailments in addition to a better probability of purposeful dependence and hospitalization [6,7].
Traditionally, Research and coverage discussions have typically targeted on the aged inhabitants as a single group, paying comparatively restricted consideration to heterogeneous traits and well being wants that exist inside this inhabitants. In latest years, a rising proof has highlighted that frailty differs systematically between women and men [8,9]. Previous research have constantly proven that the prevalence, trajectories, and predictors of frailty range by intercourse, with ladies typically exhibiting a better prevalence of frailty however decrease mortality danger at a given stage of frailty in contrast with males [10–12]. At the identical time, even amongst women and men, there’s appreciable heterogeneity in frailty. Levels and patterns of frailty can differ in accordance with socioeconomic place, residing preparations, dietary standing, and well being behaviors, indication that intercourse alone is inadequate to seize the complexity of frailty in later life [8]. Sociological elements and life-style habits of older adults have been reported to considerably affect the event of frailty and are recognized to play an vital position in stopping frailty and selling wholesome longevity [6]. A cross-sectional examine indicated that older adults with frailty are roughly 4 instances extra more likely to develop despair, whereas these with despair are 4 instances extra more likely to turn into frail [13]. In addition, a examine performed in China recruited 12,227 individuals aged 83.4 ± 11.0 years and investigated the impact of bodily exercise capability on despair [14]. Participants with low bodily exercise capability have been 2.21 instances extra more likely to endure from despair than these with regular bodily exercise capability [14]. These outcomes recommend an in depth correlation between varied danger elements and frailty, highlighting the rising emphasis on complete approaches that combine social contexts and particular person life-style habits to assist wholesome getting old by means of efficient prevention and intervention methods. Accordingly, frailty has more and more been conceptualized not solely as a person medical situation but in addition as an expression of amassed social and structural drawback over the life course [15,16].
Building on earlier research, this examine conducts sex-stratified analyses of frailty amongst older adults in Korea. Within every gender, the associations between frailty and a variety of sociodemographic, dietary, and health-behavioral elements—together with academic attainment, family revenue, family sort, physique mass index, and alcohol consumption—are examined to extra exactly characterize heterogeneity inside the older inhabitants. Furthermore, reasonably than treating frailty as a homogeneous situation, this examine concurrently examines particular person frailty elements to determine subgroups that exhibit vulnerability in particular dimensions of frailty. Through this strategy, the examine goals to offer proof to assist the event of extra focused and efficient methods for frailty prevention and administration amongst older adults.
This examine used information from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) collected between 2014 and 2019. The KNHANES is an annual, nationwide cross-sectional survey performed by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA), which makes use of a multi-stage stratified likelihood sampling technique to realize demographic representativeness. The examine protocol was accredited by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of KDCA (approval numbers: 2009-01CON-03-2C, 2010-02CON-21-C, 2011-02CON-06-C, 2012-01EXP-01-2C, 2013-07CON-03-4C, 2013-12EXP-03-5C, 2018-01-03-P-A, 2018-01-03-C-A). In accordance with the bioethics and security act, the examine was exempted from IRB evaluate within the years 2015, 2016, and 2017 [17].
From 2014 to 2020, a complete of 47,309 individuals have been included within the KNHANES. Among them, 9,825 people aged 65 years or older have been recognized. Participants with lacking information for a number of frailty elements have been excluded (n = 2,605), leaving 7,220 individuals with full information on all frailty elements. We additional excluded these with out vitamin survey information (n = 567) and people with excessive every day power consumption (< 500 kcal or > 5,000 kcal; n = 97). Consequently, the ultimate analytic pattern comprised 6,556 individuals (males: 2,913, ladies: 3,643) (Fig 1).
Sociodemographic variables included age, academic stage, marital standing, family revenue, and family sort. Educational stage was categorized as center faculty or under, highschool, or school or above. Marital standing was labeled as married/residing with associate, separated/divorced/by no means married, or widowed. Separated, divorced, and by no means married individuals have been grouped collectively because of the small variety of by no means married individuals (n = 45). Household revenue was divided into 4 teams primarily based on equivalized family revenue: low (lowest 25%), mid-low (26%–50%), mid-high (51%–75%), and excessive (highest 25%). Household sort was labeled as single-person or multi-person households.
Lifestyle elements included physique mass index (BMI), smoking standing, alcohol consumption, meals with household, variety of persistent ailments, well being standing, and power consumption (kcal). BMI (kg/m²) was labeled as underweight (BMI < 18.5), regular weight (18.5 ≤ BMI < 23), obese (23 ≤ BMI < 25), or overweight (BMI ≥ 25) [18]. Smoking standing was categorized as by no means smoked, former smoker, or present smoker. Alcohol consumption was primarily based on the frequency of alcohol consumption prior to now 12 months, categorized as “non-drinker” for individuals who didn’t drink in any respect, “low” for individuals who drank lower than as soon as a month or about as soon as a month, “moderate” for individuals who drank 2–4 instances a month or 2–3 instances per week, and “frequent” for individuals who drank greater than 4 instances per week. Meals with household have been decided primarily based on participation in breakfast, lunch, or dinner with household in the course of the earlier 12 months. The variety of persistent ailments was categorized as 0, 1–2, or 3 or extra, primarily based on the presence of hypertension, stroke, myocardial infarction (or angina), osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, bronchial asthma, diabetes mellitus, most cancers (abdomen, liver, colon, breast, cervical, and lung), and liver illness (hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and cirrhosis). Health standing was assessed by self-rated well being and labeled pretty much as good or poor. Average power consumption was assessed utilizing a 24-hour dietary recall technique, during which individuals reported all meals and drinks consumed throughout the day past.
Assessment of frailty standing was primarily based on the modified Fried phenotype, using 5 elements tailored for the particular variables accessible within the KNHANES: unintended weight reduction, exhaustion, weak point, slowness, and low bodily exercise, derived from objects accessible within the KNHANES, as referenced in earlier research [7,19–22]. Due to the inherent design of the KNHANES dataset, which doesn’t embrace the particular fatigue objects from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale, exhaustion was evaluated utilizing self-perceived stress as a proxy measure [20–23]. This substitution has been beforehand validated in Korean epidemiological research, demonstrating sturdy assemble validity by means of its vital associations with dietary standing and different well being indicators [22,23]
The standards for every part have been as follows: (1) unintended weight reduction, outlined as a self-reported unintentional lack of greater than 3 kg prior to now 12 months; (2) exhaustion, outlined as a self-perceived excessive stage of stress; (3) weak point, assessed as grip power < 28 kg for males and < 18 kg for girls in accordance with the Asian Working Group for Sarcopenia; (4) slowness, outlined as having an issue with strolling or mobility in accordance with the mobility area of the Euro Quality of Life-5 Dimension questionnaire; and (5) low bodily exercise, outlined as being within the lowest 20% of metabolic equal job (MET) scores by gender, calculated utilizing the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire [21,23,24]. This 20% threshold was adopted to keep up consistency with Fried’s unique methodology, which recognized probably the most inactive quintile of the inhabitants, and has been extensively validated in Korean frailty analysis utilizing KNHANES information [7,22,23]
Participants have been labeled as “frail” in the event that they met three or extra standards, “pre-frail” in the event that they met one or two standards, and “robust” in the event that they met not one of the standards. For evaluation, individuals have been grouped into non-frail (pre-frail and sturdy) and frail teams.
The KNHANES employs a fancy pattern design to make sure nationwide representativeness. In this examine, all analyses included survey weights, stratification variables, and clustering to provide nationally consultant estimates, with a gender-stratified strategy utilized all through. Categorical variables have been expressed as frequencies and percentages and analyzed utilizing the Rao-Scott χ² take a look at, whereas steady variables have been reported as imply ± customary error (SE) and evaluated by linear regression fashions. Multivariable logistic regression evaluation was carried out to look at associations between frailty standing (non-frail vs frail) and its elements with sociodemographic and life-style elements. For every predictor, a separate totally adjusted mannequin was fitted with simultaneous adjustment for all listed covariates. Potential multicollinearity amongst predictors was assessed utilizing variance inflation elements. All VIF values ranged from 1.06 to 2.04, indicating no proof of problematic multicollinearity. Results are introduced as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs).
Adjusted covariates included: age group (65–69, 70–74, 75–79, ≥80 years), training stage (center faculty or under, highschool, school or above), marital standing (married/residing with associate, separated/divorced/by no means married, widowed), equivalized family revenue (low, mid-low, mid-high, excessive), family sort (single-person, multi-person), BMI (underweight, regular, obese, overweight), smoking standing (by no means, former, present), alcohol consumption prior to now 12 months (non-drinker (by no means/no), low (<1/month or 1/month), average (2–4/month or 2–3/week), frequent (≥4/week)), meals with household (breakfast, lunch, dinner), variety of persistent ailments (0, 1–2, ≥3), self-rated well being standing (good, poor), and every day power consumption categorized into gender- particular tertiles. Gender-specific cut-off values have been used to outline tertiles: for males, <1573, 1573–2120, and >2120 kcal per day; for girls, <1182, 1182–1615, and >1615 kcal per day.
Missing values in sociodemographic and life-style variables have been imputed utilizing the mode of every variable. The variety of lacking instances per variable have been as follows: training stage (n = 43), family revenue (n = 37), marital standing (n = 3), BMI (n = 37), alcohol consumption (n = 2), meals with household (breakfast: n = 259, lunch: n = 275, dinner: n = 78), and self-rated well being standing (n = 1). Because the proportion of lacking information was low for all covariates (<5% for every variable; breakfast 3.95%, lunch 4.19%, dinner 1.19%, and <1% for the remaining covariates), mode imputation was used to protect pattern dimension [25]. All statistical analyses have been carried out utilizing SAS software program (ver. 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) and the extent of significance was set at P < 0.05.
The comparability of traits between genders is introduced in Table 1. Of the entire of 6,556 individuals, 2,913 have been males and three,643 have been ladies. Among males, 2,563 (88.5%) have been labeled as non-frail and 350 (11.5%) as frail, whereas amongst ladies, 2,867 (79.4%) have been non-frail and 776 (20.6%) have been frail. Compared to males, ladies have been extra more likely to have acquired no formal training (17.6% vs. 5.6%), to be widowed (43.9% vs. 7.2%), and to dwell alone (24.8% vs. 10.0%). In addition, ladies had decrease family revenue and a better prevalence of weight problems (P < .0001). Men have been extra more likely to have ever smoked and to report average alcohol consumption prior to now 12 months, however have been much less more likely to have persistent ailments (all P < .0001). Women have been extra more likely to report poor self-rated well being, not share meals with members of the family, and have a decrease common power consumption in comparison with males (all P < .0001).
The gender-specific traits in accordance with frailty standing are introduced in Table 2. Higher age confirmed a optimistic affiliation with frailty prevalence in each genders, decrease academic attainment and family revenue demonstrated vital inverse associations with frailty charges (all P < .0001). Similarly, common every day power consumption decreased as frailty standing worsened. However, by way of BMI, frail males have been predominantly of regular weight (36.1%) or obese (28.1%), whereas a better proportion of frail ladies have been labeled as overweight (42.3%). Most ladies have been by no means people who smoke (711, 90.7%), and this affiliation was statistically vital (P = 0.0007). In distinction, the vast majority of males had smoked at the very least as soon as, however this was not statistically vital (P = 0.125). For alcohol consumption, the proportion of non-drinkers was larger within the frail group for each women and men. Among frail individuals, the proportion of frequent drinkers was larger in males than in ladies (20.3% vs. 1.2%). Furthermore, the prevalence of frailty was larger amongst individuals with three or extra persistent ailments or those that perceived their well being standing as poor.
Sociodemographic and life-style elements related to frailty standing confirmed totally different patterns by gender (Table 3). The danger of frailty elevated with age, with each women and men aged 80 years or older displaying the very best danger (males: OR = 5.58, 95% CI: 3.37–9.22; ladies: OR = 5.41, 95% CI: 3.85–7.60). Attaining a highschool stage of training was related to decrease odds of frailty in each males (OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.40–0.84) and girls (OR = 0.30, 95% CI: 0.17–0.51). In addition, larger family revenue tended to be related to a decreased danger of frailty. Specifically, males within the highest revenue group (OR = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.27–0.99) and girls in each the lower-middle (OR = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.57–0.97) and upper-middle revenue teams (OR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.42–0.87) had decrease odds of frailty in contrast with the bottom revenue group. Household sort was related to frailty solely in males; in contrast with single-person households, multi-person households confirmed larger odds of frailty (OR = 2.12, 95% CI: 1.03–4.35).
BMI was related to frailty; utilizing underweight because the reference, each women and men within the regular weight, obese, and overweight classes confirmed decrease odds of frailty (Table 3). Smoking standing and alcohol consumption exhibited confirmed totally different patterns by gender. Among ladies, present smoking was related to larger odds of frailty (OR = 2.22, 95% CI: 1.16–4.26). For alcohol consumption, in contrast with non-drinkers, males with low and average alcohol consumption confirmed decrease odds of frailty (low: OR = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.40–0.99; average: OR = 0.65, 95% CI: 0.44–0.95).
The frequency of household meals over the previous 12 months confirmed contrasting outcomes in accordance with gender and meal timing. Among ladies, consuming breakfast with household was related to a better danger of frailty (OR = 1.42, 95% CI: 1.05–1.93), whereas consuming dinner with household was related to a decrease danger of frailty (OR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.53–0.96). Regarding every day power consumption categorized into gender-specific tertiles, older adults within the highest consumption group had decrease danger of frailty in each males (OR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.34–0.71) and girls (OR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.56–0.94). Having three or extra persistent ailments was related to a better improve in frailty danger in males (OR = 3.60, 95% CI: 2.18–5.94) than in ladies (OR = 1.67, 95% CI: 1.16–2.41). Poor self-rated well being was related to larger odds of frailty in each males (OR = 2.61, 95% CI: 1.69–4.02) and girls (OR = 2.36, 95% CI: 1.71–3.27) (Table 3).
In addition to analyzing general frailty, we performed additional analyses to evaluate whether or not, inside every gender, particular person frailty elements have been differentially related to sociodemographic and life-style elements. This strategy helps to determine which purposeful domains of frailty are significantly affected in particular subgroups and will inform the event of extra tailor-made prevention and administration methods. Sociodemographic and life-style elements in accordance with every frailty part by gender are introduced in Table 4 and Table 5.
Across each women and men, older age was typically related to larger odds of a number of frailty elements. Overall, larger academic attainment was typically related to decrease odds of key frailty elements, significantly weak point and slowness. In males, school or above was related to decrease odds of weak point (OR = 0.65, 95% CI: 0.47–0.90) and slowness (OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.42–0.82). In ladies, highschool and school or above have been related to decrease odds of slowness (highschool: OR = 0.44, 95% CI: 0.32–0.60; school or above: OR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.39–0.97), and highschool was additionally related to decrease odds of weak point (OR = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.46–0.82). With respect to family revenue, males within the high-income group had a decrease danger of weak point and slowness in comparison with these within the low-income group. For ladies, these within the middle-high revenue group had a decrease danger of slowness and low bodily exercise. Having a bigger family dimension was related to an elevated danger of weight reduction in males solely (OR = 2.50, 95% CI: 1.02–6.13).
Compared to those that have been underweight, each women and men with larger BMI classes confirmed an inclination towards decreased danger of the weak point part, and in males, larger BMI was additionally related to a decreased danger of weight reduction. The affiliation between smoking standing and frailty elements differed by gender. In males, present smoking was related to an elevated danger of low bodily exercise (OR = 1.50, 95% CI: 1.12–2.00), whereas in ladies, present smoking was related to a better danger of slowness (OR = 1.98, 95% CI: 1.08–3.62). For alcohol consumption, average consumption in males was related to a decreased danger of weak point, slowness, and low bodily exercise, whereas in ladies, low alcohol consumption was related to a decrease danger of weak point and exhaustion.
Among males, consuming breakfast with household was related to a decrease danger of weak point, whereas consuming dinner with household was linked to a decreased danger of weight reduction. In ladies, consuming dinner with household was related to a decreased danger of exhaustion, whereas consuming breakfast with household tended to extend the danger of low bodily exercise. In phrases of power consumption, each women and men within the center consumption group (males: 1573–2120, ladies: 1182–1615 kcal) had a decrease danger of weak point in comparison with these within the low consumption group (males: <1573, ladies: <1182 kcal). Among ladies, the very best consumption group (>1615 kcal) was additionally related to decrease danger of weak point (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.61–0.90). For males, these within the highest consumption group (>2120 kcal) additionally confirmed a decreased danger of each weak point and low bodily exercise. Having three or extra persistent ailments was related to larger dangers of weak point, slowness, and low bodily exercise in males, with the danger for slowness being particularly pronounced (OR = 4.32, 95% CI: 2.86–6.55). Among ladies, the presence of three or extra persistent ailments was linked to larger dangers of weight reduction, weak point, and slowness. Additionally, poor self-rated well being was related to an elevated danger of all 5 frailty elements in ladies.
This examine comprehensively examined the associations between frailty and sociodemographic and life-style elements by gender amongst older Korean adults. Increased age, decrease academic attainment, decrease BMI, a better variety of persistent situations, and poor self-rated well being standing have been all considerably related to a better danger of frailty no matter gender. Among males, larger family revenue and better power consumption, and month-to-month alcohol consumption have been related to decrease odds of frailty, whereas in ladies, health-related behaviors equivalent to smoking cessation, extra frequent household dinners, and decrease breakfast frequency have been related to a decreased danger of frailty.
Various prior research have constantly reported gender variations in frailty, and the current examine corroborates this gender disparity by discovering that girls have a considerably larger likelihood of being frail in comparison with males [26,27]. Similar findings have been reported within the Tromsø cohort examine in Norway, the place the prevalence of frailty was larger amongst ladies than males [27]. Additionally, that examine demonstrated that mortality charges amongst frail people have been larger in males, suggesting that males might expertise comparatively worse well being outcomes as soon as frailty develops. Although the present examine didn’t assess mortality outcomes, it’s believable that analogous mechanisms are at play. These findings underscore the significance of contemplating sex-specific elements within the prevention and administration of frailty, highlighting the necessity for gender-tailored insurance policies and interventions.
Demographic and socioeconomic elements have been additionally discovered to be carefully associated. A typical development was noticed in each sexes, whereby superior age, decrease academic attainment, and decrease revenue ranges have been all related to an elevated danger of frailty. Frailty is a pure phenomenon that happens with the development of getting old, and accordingly, the proportion of the inhabitants within the frail stage was equally larger with rising age [26].
An inclination for elevated frailty danger was noticed amongst people with decrease revenue and academic ranges, which can replicate restricted consciousness and fewer alternatives for prevention and administration of frailty [28]. Notably, amongst males, having at the very least a highschool diploma or larger training was related to sooner strolling velocity, one of many key elements of frailty, suggesting a possible protecting impact towards frailty. These findings are in line with earlier analysis, which additionally reported that each women and men with a college diploma exhibited considerably sooner strolling speeds in comparison with these with out larger training [29]. Collectively, these outcomes point out that sociodemographic elements, significantly academic attainment, are carefully linked to bodily perform—particularly frailty elements equivalent to muscle weak point and strolling slowness—and will contribute to an elevated danger of frailty. This sample helps the interpretation that frailty displays the cumulative affect of long-term social and structural disadvantages, reasonably than being solely an individual-level medical situation [30,31].
Lifestyle elements have been additionally discovered to be carefully related to frailty. A typical development was noticed in each genders, whereby underweight standing, low dietary consumption, the presence of three or extra persistent ailments, and poor self-rated well being have been all related to an elevated danger of frailty. In the Mexican aged inhabitants, being underweight was related to roughly double the danger of frailty in comparison with normal-weight friends, probably because of the elevated probability of muscle mass loss ensuing from malnutrition amongst underweight older adults [32]. Furthermore, males with regular weight, obese, or weight problems had a decrease danger of weight reduction and muscle power decline in comparison with underweight males, and an identical development was noticed in ladies as properly. One examine additionally reported that normal-weight males exhibited sooner gait velocity than different teams, whereas underweight ladies demonstrated considerably slower strolling velocity [29]. These findings recommend that being underweight might act as a key danger issue for frailty through mechanisms equivalent to muscle weak point and decreased gait velocity.
The variety of persistent ailments was additionally discovered to considerably affect the danger of frailty. Individuals with three or extra persistent situations exhibited a considerably larger danger not solely of frailty but in addition of muscle weak point and decreased gait velocity in each women and men. A scientific evaluate and meta-analysis focusing on community-dwelling older adults equally recognized having three or extra persistent ailments as a key danger issue for frailty [26]. Furthermore, Welmer et al. reported that each women and men with two or extra persistent situations had considerably slower gait speeds in comparison with these with fewer persistent ailments [29]. These findings recommend that a number of persistent ailments might work together with frailty to additional improve the danger of antagonistic well being outcomes.
Older adults who evaluated their well being standing as poor confirmed a better danger of frailty and its elements in each women and men. In one earlier examine, individuals who evaluated their well being standing as poor confirmed a considerably larger danger of weight reduction, decreased strolling velocity, and exhaustion in comparison with individuals who evaluated their well being standing pretty much as good [33]. The outcomes of this examine additionally confirmed that when the self-assessment of well being standing was poor, vital odds ratios have been noticed in all frailty elements in ladies, and vital outcomes have been derived in slowness and low bodily exercise in males. This confirmed that the danger of frailty and frailty elements elevated because the self-assessment of well being standing was poor. In addition, a earlier examine reported that girls with poorer self-rated well being standing had larger mortality charges [34]. This means that self-assessment of well being standing is carefully associated not solely to the danger of frailty but in addition to numerous well being outcomes equivalent to mortality. Therefore, it’s essential to conduct common self-assessment of well being standing to successfully scale back the danger of frailty within the aged. In specific, within the case of ladies, self-assessment of well being standing can be utilized as an vital indicator to comprehensively perceive ladies’s well being dangers, so a coverage strategy that actively intervenes and prioritizes administration appears mandatory.
Differences by gender have been noticed within the affiliation between life-style elements and frailty. Among ladies, smoking and having breakfast and dinner with household have been considerably related to frailty, whereas these associations weren’t vital in males. Specifically, on this examine, smoking was discovered to extend the danger of frailty in ladies. In distinction, a earlier examine reported that smoking had a detrimental impact on frailty primarily in males, with no vital affiliation noticed in ladies [35]. Nevertheless, smoking in ladies has been reported to negate the survival benefit that girls usually have in comparison with males. Additionally, an elevated quantity of smoking was related to larger mortality charges in each women and men, with ladies exhibiting a better danger of untimely demise and stroke [36].
Differences by gender have been additionally noticed within the affiliation between consuming with household and frailty. While no vital associations have been present in males, a contrasting sample emerged in ladies. Older ladies who ate breakfast with their household exhibited a better danger of frailty, whereas those that ate dinner with their household confirmed an inclination towards a decrease danger. These findings recommend that not solely the presence of shared meals but in addition their timing and social context might differentially affect frailty danger in later life. The elevated frailty danger related to having breakfast with household amongst ladies might replicate broader sociocultural and contextual elements, together with caregiving burdens, meal preparation stress, or the division of social roles. Previous research have instructed that shared meals might be embedded inside gendered divisions of unpaid work and time strain, significantly in later life, when caregiving and family duties typically stay concentrated amongst ladies [37,38]. Time-use analysis signifies that caregiving and home actions ceaselessly peak round mealtimes, particularly within the morning, which can coincide with larger ranges of position pressure and time strain. Conversely, consuming dinner with household could also be extra more likely to happen beneath comparatively decrease time constraints and performance as alternatives for social interplay and emotional assist, probably contributing to a decrease danger of frailty. In earlier examine performed in Japan reported that not consuming with household was related to larger frailty danger in each women and men, which contrasts with our findings [39]. Such discrepancies recommend that cultural context might form how household meals relate to frailty and different well being outcomes. Although this examine couldn’t instantly assess caregiving duties, home labor, or perceived burden, these findings spotlight the significance of contemplating the social context and timing of shared meals when decoding associations between household mealtime practices and frailty. Therefore, additional in-depth analyses throughout various nations and cultures is warranted to raised perceive the complicated relationship between household mealtime practices and frailty danger.
In this manner, it was confirmed that demographic and life-style elements have an effect on frailty and frailty elements. Considering Korea is getting into a super-aging society, the necessity for multifaceted insurance policies to stop frailty is additional emphasised. For instance, within the case of socioeconomic elements equivalent to training and revenue, it’s mandatory to ensure lifelong training alternatives even in outdated age and actively set up assist insurance policies for low-income aged folks. Moreover, the constant vulnerability noticed amongst older adults with decrease training and revenue ranges means that focused screening and intervention methods specializing in these teams could also be significantly efficient. In addition, since smoking, consuming, and dietary behaviors had totally different results on frailty elements relying on gender, interventions that account for heterogeneity inside older populations—reasonably than counting on gender alone—might improve effectiveness.
This examine has the next limitations. First, because of the cross-sectional examine design, the causal relationship between demographic and life-style elements and frailty can’t be clearly established. Because the affiliation between demographic and life-style elements and frailty could also be bidirectional, future research are wanted to verify the causal relationship. Second, the usage of modified frailty standards primarily based on proxy measures accessible within the KNHANES, reasonably than the unique Fried phenotype, might have launched potential misclassification of frailty standing. Third, relating to lacking information and choice bias, roughly 32% of eligible individuals have been excluded due to lacking info for at the very least one frailty part and/or vitamin survey information [22]. This exclusion might have launched choice bias if missingness was associated to frailty standing or sociodemographic/life-style traits; due to this fact, the noticed associations needs to be interpreted with warning, and future research utilizing longitudinal information and/or strategies that higher account for missingness are warranted. Fourth, though we adjusted for main sociodemographic and health-related elements, the potential of residual confounding from unmeasured variables—equivalent to cognitive perform, despair, social assist high quality, and particular caregiving roles—can’t be dominated out. Fifth, self-reported variables, together with dietary consumption and perceived stress, are topic to inherent recall bias and measurement error, which can have an effect on the accuracy of the noticed associations. Next, separated, divorced, and by no means married individuals have been grouped right into a single marital standing class because of the small variety of by no means married people within the pattern. While this strategy was adopted to make sure statistical stability, these marital standing subgroups might differ of their social, financial, and health-related traits, and consequently of their frailty danger profiles. As a end result, this classification might have restricted our potential to completely seize heterogeneity in frailty danger throughout marital standing subgroups. Future research with bigger pattern sizes ought to look at frailty danger utilizing extra finely disaggregated marital standing classes to raised replicate these potential variations. Finally, this examine was performed on Korean aged folks, and there are limitations in generalizing the outcomes to aged folks in different nations with totally different life. Nevertheless, this examine aimed to make clear the connection between frailty and life-style and sociodemographic elements, and that is vital as fundamental information for establishing administration and prevention methods for frail aged folks in Korea, which is getting into an getting old society. Further follow-up research needs to be performed constantly to elucidate the causal relationship between life-style and sociodemographic elements and frailty.
This examine comprehensively analyzed sociodemographic and life-style elements, together with gender variations, influencing frailty and its elements amongst older adults in Korea. Higher academic attainment, satisfactory physique weight, and better revenue have been positively related to a decreased danger of frailty in each women and men, whereas the presence of persistent ailments, underweight standing, and poor self-rated well being elevated the danger of frailty elements equivalent to slowness and muscle weak point. Additionally, life-style elements like smoking and household mealtime patterns confirmed differential associations with frailty between genders. These findings recommend that academic attainment, as a marker of long-term socioeconomic benefit, might have enduring implications for wholesome getting old, highlighting the potential advantages of academic and social investments earlier within the life course. At the identical time, the robust associations noticed between training, revenue, and frailty in later life point out the significance of figuring out older adults with decrease academic and socioeconomic backgrounds as precedence teams for prevention and administration efforts. Furthermore, the outcomes underscore the necessity for focused and efficient interventions that tackle heterogeneity inside the older inhabitants, together with life-style modification applications, persistent illness administration, caregiving assist, and financial help, reasonably than counting on gender alone as a foundation for intervention. Accordingly, this examine supplies worthwhile sensible and coverage implications for frailty prevention and well being promotion in Korean older adults and serves as a strong reference for the event of personalized academic supplies focusing on various subgroups inside this inhabitants.
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