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Psychological and way of life correlates of consuming conduct and adiposity: Structural and latent profile modeling

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Citation: Obara-Gołębiowska M (2026) Psychological and way of life correlates of consuming conduct and adiposity: Structural and latent profile modeling. PLoS One 21(2):
e0343336.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343336

Editor: Poppy Watson, University of Technology Sydney, AUSTRALIA

Received: October 13, 2025; Accepted: February 4, 2026; Published: February 20, 2026

Copyright: © 2026 Małgorzata Obara-Gołębiowska. This is an open entry article distributed below the phrases of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution, and replica in any medium, offered the unique creator and supply are credited.

Data Availability: The dataset supporting the findings of this research is overtly accessible in Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18289199.

Funding: The creator(s) obtained no particular funding for this work.

Competing pursuits: I’ve learn the journal’s coverage and the creator of this manuscript has declared that no competing pursuits exist.

Abbreviations:
BMI,
physique mass index; WC,
waist circumference; EMS,
early maladaptive schemas; ER,
emotion regulation; DERS,
difficulties in emotion regulation scale; YSQ,
younger schema questionnaire; MSPSS,
multidimensional scale of perceived social assist; PSS,
perceived stress scale; QERB,
questionnaire of eating-related behaviors; EO,
emotional overeating; HO,
ordinary overeating; DR,
dietary restraint; UDI,
unhealthy food plan index; IPAQ,
worldwide bodily exercise questionnaire; MET,
metabolic equal of activity; SEM,
structural equation modeling; CFA,
confirmatory issue evaluation; LPA,
latent profile evaluation; FIML,
full info most chance; BIC,
Bayesian info criterion; SABIC,
sample-size adjusted Bayesian info criterion; RMSEA,
root imply sq. error of approximation; SRMR,
standardized root imply sq. residual; CFI,
comparative match index; TLI,
Tucker–Lewis index

Introduction

Early maladaptive schemas and consuming conduct

Early maladaptive schemas (EMS) are enduring cognitive–emotional patterns that emerge throughout childhood in response to unmet emotional wants and antagonistic interpersonal experiences. They signify maladaptive themes concerning the self, others, and relationships, and so they strongly affect have an effect on regulation and coping behaviors [1,2]. Prior analysis has linked EMS to a variety of psychological difficulties, together with despair, nervousness, and character issues [1], however there may be rising recognition that EMS are additionally related to health-related behaviors akin to consuming [3,4].

Evidence means that EMS are related to overeating and weight-related difficulties by their affect on self-regulation and stress responsiveness [3,4]. For occasion, schemas within the Disconnection/Rejection area (e.g., Emotional Deprivation, Abandonment) have been linked to heightened emotional vulnerability [2], whereas schemas within the Impaired Limits area (e.g., Insufficient Self-Control) have been related to difficulties in self-regulation that will predispose people to impulsive consuming and challenges adhering to dietary targets. In community-based research, people with chubby and weight problems endorse greater ranges of those EMS in comparison with normal-weight individuals, with girls and youthful adults specifically reporting stronger schema endorsement and extra emotional overeating [5]. These findings spotlight EMS as transdiagnostic cognitive–emotional buildings that will form vulnerability to dysregulated consuming.

Emotion regulation and disordered consuming

Emotion regulation (ER) difficulties are constantly implicated in maladaptive consuming patterns [6]. ER refers back to the capability to determine, perceive, and modulate emotional states in adaptive methods. Individuals experiencing ER difficulties typically wrestle with heightened detrimental have an effect on and will flip to meals as a coping technique [7]. Emotional overeating, specifically, has been described as an try and downregulate misery by meals consumption, regardless of its long-term detrimental penalties for weight and well being [8].

Studies show that ER difficulties are related to emotional and ordinary overeating [9] and may mediate associations between EMS and disordered consuming attitudes [10]. Evidence from each medical and neighborhood samples means that ER difficulties are strong correlates of a variety of problematic consuming behaviors [11]. Longitudinal findings additional present that ER difficulties are prospectively linked to weight acquire and poorer dietary high quality [12,13], suggesting that ER might signify a key psychological mechanism by which broader cognitive–emotional vulnerabilities relate to consuming conduct over time [14,15].

Stress and social assist as contextual elements

Beyond cognitive–emotional vulnerabilities, contextual elements akin to perceived stress and social assist play significant roles in shaping consuming conduct. Stress is a well-established correlate of overeating, significantly of calorie-dense, palatable meals. Experimental and observational research have constantly reported that stress is related to elevated emotional consuming and decreased dietary restraint [16–18]. Stress has additionally been linked to each larger ER difficulties and stronger activation of EMS, indicating that it might exacerbate current psychological vulnerabilities.

Conversely, perceived social assist capabilities as a protecting issue, mitigating the extent to which psychological vulnerabilities relate to consuming conduct. Social assist has been proven to buffer stress and cut back reliance on maladaptive coping methods akin to overeating [19]. In community-based samples, greater perceived social assist has been linked to more healthy dietary patterns, with proof that these associations might contain self-efficacy and body-related considerations [20]. Notably, social assist seems to function primarily on the degree of consuming conduct quite than adiposity itself, highlighting its function as a contextual useful resource that facilitates adaptive coping.

Taken collectively, these findings recommend that stress and social assist might act as moderators of the pathways linking EMS, ER, and maladaptive consuming. Stress might strengthen associations between EMS and ER difficulties, whereas social assist might attenuate them. Understanding these moderating results is important for growing a nuanced account of how psychological and contextual elements collectively relate to consuming conduct.

Lifestyle elements: Diet high quality and bodily exercise

Lifestyle behaviors akin to food plan high quality and bodily exercise signify extra elements related to understanding consuming and adiposity. Psychological research typically depend on self-report measures that seize tendencies akin to emotional or ordinary overeating; nevertheless, such devices don’t instantly replicate precise meals consumption [21]. Nutritional epidemiology subsequently emphasizes validated dietary evaluation instruments akin to meals frequency questionnaires (FFQ), which permit quantification of ordinary dietary consumption [22]. In Poland, the FFQ-6 has been validated and is extensively used to evaluate each wholesome and unhealthy consuming patterns, together with the Unhealthy Diet Index (UDI) [23]. Higher UDI scores have constantly been related to weight problems danger and antagonistic well being outcomes [24]. Moreover, latest analysis highlights hyperlinks between consumption of ultra-processed meals, weight problems, and psychological misery, together with emotional consuming [25,26].

Physical exercise constitutes one other way of life issue with implications for each physiological and psychological functioning. Insufficient bodily exercise and extended sedentary conduct typically co-occur with unhealthy dietary habits, amplifying each health-related and emotional dangers [27]. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) has demonstrated reliability and validity throughout numerous cultural contexts [25], and standardized pointers exist for its scoring and interpretation [28]. Despite its relevance, bodily exercise isn’t examined alongside deeper cognitive–emotional elements akin to EMS and ER inside a unified analytical mannequin.

Why structural equation modeling and latent profile evaluation

Although the psychological correlates of consuming conduct have been extensively examined utilizing group-comparison and regression-based approaches, a lot of this work has centered on remoted constructs or particular pathways quite than on their joint group inside a broader system. As a end result, much less is understood about how cognitive–emotional vulnerabilities, contextual elements, and way of life behaviors co-occur and combine in relation to adiposity outcomes in neighborhood samples. Although EMS, ER difficulties, perceived stress, and social assist have every been individually linked to consuming behaviors and adiposity, prior analysis has usually examined these constructs individually quite than inside integrative analytical frameworks. Regression-based approaches have offered priceless insights into direct associations however stay restricted of their capability to seize complicated mediating and moderating mechanisms amongst psychological and way of life determinants of weight [5]. Structural equation modeling (SEM) presents a complete framework to concurrently estimate a number of pathways, incorporate latent constructs, and account for measurement error [29–31]. SEM is subsequently nicely suited to testing integrative fashions by which EMS are related to consuming behaviors not directly by way of ER difficulties, with stress and social assist appearing as contextual moderators. Moreover, SEM permits for multi-group analyses to look at whether or not these pathways differ by gender and age.

Importantly, regardless of the theoretical relevance of EMS, ER, stress, social assist, food plan high quality, bodily exercise, and adiposity, no earlier research has built-in all these constructs inside a single SEM framework in a big grownup pattern. This hole underscores the novelty of the current research’s method.

Complementing SEM, latent profile evaluation (LPA) allows the identification of subgroups of people who share comparable psychological and behavioral traits. Prior work in way of life and vitamin analysis has typically revealed two or three latent lessons [32,33], usually reflecting gradations of danger (e.g., low-, intermediate-, and high-risk profiles). However, the precise variety of significant psychological–behavioral profiles is empirically decided and will fluctuate throughout samples. Extending LPA to the psychological area gives an ecologically legitimate technique to combine EMS, ER difficulties, stress, and social assist with way of life indicators. Prior analysis signifies that people excessive in emotional vulnerability and low in emotion regulation are inclined to report extra overeating and weight-related issues [3,14,15], whereas people with greater social assist have a tendency to point out more healthy consuming patterns [19]. Women and youthful adults additionally are inclined to endorse extra maladaptive schemas and report extra emotional consuming [5].

Together, these findings justify the expectation that a number of latent profiles reflecting distinct constellations of psychological and way of life elements could also be recognized, though their quantity and construction stay exploratory.

Methods

Participants and process

A complete of 1,500 adults aged 18–65 years have been recruited between January 2018 and February 2025 by ads in native universities, healthcare facilities (together with a specialised weight problems clinic), and sports activities amenities. Recruitment was carried out as a part of long-term institutional collaborations to make sure entry to numerous populations differing in well being and way of life. To safe balanced statistical comparisons, individuals have been stratified by gender, age (youthful adults: 18–35 years; older adults: 36–65 years), and physique mass index (regular weight vs. chubby/overweight). The research employed a non-probability, stratified purposive sampling method designed to make sure balanced illustration throughout gender, age teams, and BMI classes; accordingly, no statistical weighting was utilized, and findings must be interpreted in relation to this stratified neighborhood pattern quite than as population-representative estimates.

Importantly, no information assortment happened in the course of the strict COVID-19 lockdown in 2020, a interval that would have considerably affected individuals’ emotional functioning and consuming behaviors.

Eligibility standards included being not less than 18 years outdated, capable of perceive research procedures, and supply knowledgeable consent. Individuals with underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m²) have been excluded as a consequence of inadequate illustration. Detailed inclusion and exclusion standards, together with psychiatric and medical screening procedures, are offered in S1 File.

All individuals accomplished validated self-report questionnaires in on-line or paper–pencil format and underwent standardized anthropometric assessments (top, weight, waist circumference) carried out by educated researchers. The research adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki and was accepted by the Ethics Committee for Scientific Research on the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland (approval no. 1/2017). All individuals offered written knowledgeable consent previous to participation. This article follows the STROBE pointers, with the finished guidelines offered in S2 File.

Measures

Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS).

EMS have been assessed with the Polish adaptation of the Young Schema Questionnaire – Short Form, Third Edition (YSQ-S3) [1,39]. The 90-item YSQ-S3 measures 18 schemas throughout 5 domains on a 6-point Likert scale. Higher scores replicate stronger schema endorsement. Reliability within the current pattern was wonderful (α = .94). Full CFA loadings for all EMS indicators are offered in S3 File.

Analytic technique

Results

Sample traits

The analytic pattern consisted of 1,500 individuals (53.0% girls, 47.0% males; 55.0% youthful adults, 45.0% older adults). Descriptive statistics for steady research variables are introduced in Table 1, and the distribution of individuals by intercourse, age group, residence, and schooling is reported in Table 2. All measures demonstrated ample variability with out proof of ground or ceiling results. No variables confirmed departures from normality that may preclude SEM estimation.

Structural fashions (SEM; H1–H9)

The hypothesized SEM demonstrated acceptable however suboptimal match (χ²(407) = 3303, p < .001; CFI = 0.88; TLI = 0.86; RMSEA = 0.07; SRMR = 0.13). Such indices are widespread in multi-domain fashions estimated in giant samples, and the construction was retained based mostly on theoretical justification.

EMS have been strongly related to DERS (β = 0.71, p < .001; H1). Higher DERS have been related to emotional overeating and ordinary overeating and confirmed a small detrimental affiliation with dietary restraint (β ≈ –.09). Given vital gender variations in multi-group fashions, pooled coefficients must be interpreted with warning.

Direct EMS → EO/HO/DR paths remained vital, indicating partial mediation (H2–H3). The giant standardized direct paths from EMS to consuming outcomes seemingly replicate shared variance amongst self-reported constructs; extra mannequin diagnostics are offered in S3–S4 Files.

Eating behaviors have been positively related to UDI (β = 0.15–0.31, all p < .001; H7). Higher UDI was related to greater BMI (β = 0.20, p < .001) and WC (β = 0.11, p < .001; H8). Associations with WC have been modest.

HO and DR additionally confirmed direct relationships with BMI and WC impartial of UDI (β = 0.23–0.31).

Physical exercise was inversely related to BMI and WC (β = –0.11 and –0.07), whereas sedentary time was positively associated (β = 0.20 and 0.12; all ps < .001) (Table 3).

Full SEM output together with different fashions is reported in S4 File.

Discussion

The current research examined a complete SEM linking EMS, ER difficulties, stress, social assist, maladaptive consuming behaviors, food plan high quality, bodily exercise, and adiposity outcomes in a big grownup pattern. By concurrently incorporating cognitive–emotional, contextual, and way of life variables, the research gives an integrative framework for understanding the multifactorial pathways related to weight problems. Overall, the findings have been largely per the hypothesized associations and highlighted the relevance of psychological vulnerabilities and way of life behaviors as joint correlates of dietary and adiposity outcomes. Although mannequin match didn’t meet optimum thresholds (CFI/TLI < .90; SRMR > .08), this isn’t unusual for complicated, multi-domain SEMs in giant samples. Alternative fashions have been examined to make sure pathway stability, and the ultimate built-in mannequin was retained to protect theoretical coherence regardless of suboptimal match indices. The presence of constant however principally small results, alongside some reasonable direct associations, means that the retained mannequin captures significant relationships, whereas additionally indicating that extra variables (e.g., sleep, socioeconomic standing, environmental elements) are prone to account for residual variance past the constructs included right here. These issues guided the interpretation of the outcomes introduced under.

Cognitive–emotional mechanisms

As hypothesized (H1), EMS have been strongly related to ER difficulties, reinforcing schema idea that positions EMS as enduring cognitive–emotional patterns compromising have an effect on regulation [1,2]. This signifies that maladaptive schemas should not solely distal vulnerabilities however stay linked to emotion–regulation capacities in maturity. Consistent with H2, ER difficulties partly mediated the affiliation between EMS and consuming conduct, however this oblique impact was selective and restricted primarily to dietary restraint; no oblique results emerged for emotional or ordinary overeating. Importantly, EMS additionally confirmed direct associations with emotional overeating, ordinary overeating, and dietary restraint, suggesting that maladaptive schemas might function cognitive templates for consuming dysregulation. These outcomes converge with prior proof that ER difficulties partly clarify hyperlinks between schemas and consuming pathology [9,47], whereas additionally indicating that schema–consuming associations are predominantly direct quite than broadly mediated by ER deficits.

Indirect pathways from EMS to adiposity by way of dietary restraint and UDI have been statistically vital however very small and restricted to the pathway involving dietary restraint and food plan high quality, indicating that emotion-related processes could also be extra proximal to consuming patterns than to weight standing itself. Longitudinal research equally present that people with elevated ER difficulties are extra susceptible to emotional consuming and poorer food plan high quality, which in flip predict weight acquire over time [12–14]. The current research provides cross-sectional proof from a big grownup pattern displaying comparable patterns throughout each adiposity indicators (BMI and WC), whereas underscoring that impact sizes for oblique hyperlinks to adiposity must be interpreted cautiously. Importantly, the selective and modest mediating function of emotion regulation difficulties noticed within the current research is theoretically per the inclusion of a number of behavioral and way of life pathways inside the identical integrative mannequin. Emotion regulation represents a comparatively proximal mechanism shaping consuming conduct, whereas adiposity indicators akin to physique mass index and waist circumference replicate cumulative, long-term outcomes influenced by a broad constellation of behavioral and contextual elements. When food plan high quality, bodily exercise, and sedentary conduct are modeled concurrently, the contribution of emotion regulation to distal adiposity outcomes is subsequently anticipated to attenuate quite than dominate the general mannequin. In this context, early maladaptive schemas might affect consuming conduct not solely by emotion regulation difficulties, but additionally by way of extra direct cognitive and behavioral pathways, together with self-control, impulsivity, normative beliefs about consuming, and coping methods.

Contextual moderators: Stress and social assist

Moderation analyses yielded partial assist for the hypothesized contextual results. Contrary to H4, perceived stress didn’t considerably reasonable the EMS–ER affiliation. This sample means that, though stress is a sturdy correlate of consuming dysregulation and weight acquire in prior work [16,17], its affect might function extra instantly on consuming behaviors quite than by amplifying the EMS–ER hyperlink; comparable null moderation outcomes have been reported elsewhere for schema–emotion and emotion–consuming pathways [49,50]. In distinction, social assist considerably moderated the EMS–ER pathway (H5): greater assist attenuated the EMS–ER hyperlink. Individuals with decrease perceived assist exhibited stronger associations between EMS and ER difficulties, per proof that social ties buffer psychological vulnerability and enhance well being outcomes [51–53], in addition to findings that supportive relationships cut back reliance on maladaptive coping akin to emotional consuming [19]. However, the scale of this interplay impact was small, indicating a refined quite than a pronounced buffering affect. Together, these outcomes spotlight social assist as a important resilience issue able to offsetting dangers related to early maladaptive schemas and underscore the potential of interpersonal and neighborhood assets to mitigate psychological vulnerabilities within the context of weight problems.

Gender and age variations

Consistent with H6, multi-group SEM analyses confirmed that the associations of ER difficulties with each emotional overeating and ordinary overeating have been considerably stronger amongst girls than males. This sample aligns with longstanding proof that ladies are extra susceptible to emotion-driven consuming [50,54] and helps earlier findings from the identical cohort displaying greater schema endorsement and emotional consuming in girls in comparison with males [5]. These outcomes underline the significance of contemplating gender-specific vulnerabilities when designing preventive and therapeutic interventions, as schema- and ER-focused methods could also be significantly related for ladies. No vital age-related variations have been noticed in structural paths. Taken along with prior proof displaying greater imply ranges of schemas and emotional consuming in youthful adults [3,4], this implies that age results could also be extra evident in general vulnerability ranges quite than within the structural interrelations amongst schemas, emotion regulation, and consuming behaviors.

Theoretical contribution and interpretive scope

From a theoretical perspective, the current findings advance integrative fashions of consuming conduct and weight problems by clarifying the selective and context-dependent pathways linking early maladaptive schemas, emotion regulation difficulties, contextual assets, and way of life behaviors. Rather than supporting a common mediational function of emotion regulation, the outcomes point out that cognitive–emotional vulnerabilities function primarily by strong direct associations with consuming behaviors, with solely restricted and pathway-specific oblique results.

Importantly, this sample underscores the excellence between proximal psychological mechanisms shaping consuming conduct and extra distal indicators of adiposity, akin to physique mass index and waist circumference, which replicate the cumulative affect of a number of behavioral, metabolic, and contextual processes over time. When way of life behaviors—together with food plan high quality, bodily exercise, and sedentary conduct—are thought-about alongside cognitive–emotional and social elements, the explanatory function of emotion regulation difficulties is predicted to attenuate quite than dominate the general mannequin.

The current research subsequently contributes to idea by delineating which mechanisms stay salient when psychological vulnerabilities, contextual moderators, and concrete way of life behaviors are examined concurrently inside a single integrative framework. Given the non-random sampling design, these findings must be interpreted as theory-informing quite than population-generalizable. Nevertheless, the outcomes provide a coherent conceptual foundation for understanding how cognitive–emotional, social, and behavioral elements collectively form consuming patterns and adiposity, whereas avoiding overgeneralization past the empirical scope of the pattern.

Limitations

Despite its strengths, a number of limitations must be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences. All pathways have been modeled and interpreted as associations quite than causal results. Longitudinal and experimental research are wanted to find out whether or not EMS and ER difficulties prospectively relate to adjustments in consuming conduct, food plan high quality, and adiposity. Second, most variables have been assessed by way of self-report, which can be topic to recall and social desirability biases, significantly for dietary consumption and bodily exercise. However, anthropometric outcomes (BMI and WC) have been measured instantly by educated researchers, lowering measurement error for these indices. Including goal measures akin to accelerometry or 24-hour dietary remembers would improve validity. Third, contextual moderators have been restricted to emphasize and social assist; different vital elements akin to socioeconomic standing, sleep, or cultural norms weren’t included. Fourth, whereas the pattern was giant and balanced by age and gender, it was drawn from a single nationwide context, which can restrict generalizability. Additionally, gender was operationalized utilizing a binary classification (girls/males), which doesn’t seize gender variety and will restrict the applicability of the findings to non-binary and gender-diverse populations.

Fifth, though mannequin match indices didn’t attain typical thresholds (CFI/TLI < .90; SRMR = .13), such deviations are widespread in large-sample, multi-domain SEMs that incorporate a number of latent constructs and interplay phrases. Prior methodological work has emphasised that match indices shouldn’t be interpreted rigidly and that theoretical coherence and interpretability are equally important in evaluating SEM options [55,56]. In this context, the retained framework gives a substantively significant and statistically secure illustration of the hypothesized pathways, even when statistical indices should not optimum. Finally, though SEM enabled the testing of mediation, moderation, and group variations, the framework required stepwise analyses quite than a totally built-in mannequin, which can have restricted the power to check all higher-order interactions in a single equation system.

Conclusion

This research demonstrates that early maladaptive schemas are related to maladaptive consuming patterns and adiposity primarily by strong direct relationships, with solely small and selective oblique pathways involving emotion regulation difficulties, dietary restraint, and food plan high quality. Lifestyle behaviors additional accounted for variance in adiposity outcomes, whereas social assist emerged as a modest however constant protecting moderator of the affiliation between schemas and emotion regulation difficulties. Gender-specific patterns have been additionally noticed, with girls exhibiting stronger associations between emotion regulation difficulties and maladaptive consuming behaviors.

Taken collectively, these findings underscore the significance of integrative approaches that contemplate cognitive–emotional vulnerabilities, contextual assets, and concrete way of life behaviors concurrently when inspecting pathways to weight problems. Rather than implicating a single dominant psychological mechanism, the outcomes spotlight the cumulative and interacting contributions of a number of elements, suggesting that efficient prevention and intervention efforts must be multidimensional and context-sensitive.

Implications for follow and coverage

These implications must be interpreted as theory-informed issues quite than direct medical or coverage suggestions. The findings carry a number of implications:

  • Theory: Results reinforce schema idea within the area of consuming conduct and weight problems, positioning early maladaptive schemas as transdiagnostic vulnerabilities related to eating-related and adiposity outcomes.
  • Clinical follow: Interventions might profit from integrating schema-informed methods (e.g., addressing maladaptive beliefs, enhancing adaptive coping) with emotion regulation expertise coaching and way of life modification. Strengthening social assist might additional improve intervention results.
  • Prevention: School- and workplace-based well being packages might incorporate schema-informed psychoeducation, mindfulness-based approaches, and group-based emotion regulation expertise coaching to foster resilience in opposition to maladaptive consuming patterns.
  • Policy: Public well being initiatives might profit from addressing psychological vulnerabilities alongside way of life behaviors, embedding schema- and emotion-regulation-informed parts into weight problems prevention methods. Enhancing social assist networks inside communities might signify a scalable protecting useful resource.
  • Demographic tailoring: Preventive and intervention efforts must be gender-sensitive, with specific consideration to girls, who demonstrated stronger associations between emotion regulation difficulties and maladaptive consuming behaviors.

These findings are per modern biopsychosocial views emphasizing the dynamic interaction between cognitive–emotional, social, and behavioral processes in well being and illness [57–59]. Overall, the research advances an integrative biopsychosocial mannequin of weight problems, demonstrating how maladaptive schemas and emotion regulation difficulties intersect with stress, social assist, food plan, and bodily exercise in shaping adiposity-related outcomes. This multidimensional perspective might inform extra focused and context-sensitive approaches to prevention and intervention.


This web page was created programmatically, to learn the article in its unique location you possibly can go to the hyperlink bellow:
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article%3Fid%3D10.1371/journal.pone.0343336
and if you wish to take away this text from our web site please contact us

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