Swimming

Sex-based variations in entrance crawl and butterfly dash efficiency in age-group swimmers

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Abstract

Citation: Matjiur R, Chainok P, Lauer J, Limroongreungrat W, de Jesus Ok, Zacca R, et al. (2025) Sex-based variations in entrance crawl and butterfly dash efficiency in age-group swimmers. PLoS One 20(12):
e0339480.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339480

Editor: Dalton Müller Pessôa Filho, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio de Mesquita Filho – Campus de Bauru, BRAZIL

Received: June 30, 2025; Accepted: December 8, 2025; Published: December 29, 2025

Copyright: © 2025 Matjiur et al. This is an open entry article distributed below the phrases of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution, and copy in any medium, offered the unique creator and supply are credited.

Data Availability: All related knowledge are inside the paper and its Supporting Information information.

Funding: Faculty of Sport Science, Burapha University THAILAND. The funders had no position in research design, knowledge assortment and evaluation, choice to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing pursuits: There aren’t any competing pursuits to report.

Introduction

Swimming is predominantly thought of as a biophysical sport, the place biomechanical and bioenergetic components play pivotal roles in figuring out efficiency. Consequently, coaches and swimming scientists typically prescribe coaching and consider bodily conditioning and technical proficiency together, as a substitute of assuming unbiased evaluation [1,2]. The efficacy of swimming, particularly in dash occasions such because the 50 m simultaneous (butterfly), and alternated method (entrance crawl), is considerably decided by a swimmer’s skill to generate power and keep velocity all through quick distances [3–5]. While components together with swimming method, begins and turns [6,7], together with bodily and physiological endurance and vitality system capability and energy are important [1,2], the coordinated technology of propulsive power, involving power and energy in each the higher and decrease limbs, is essential in figuring out efficiency success.

Previous investigations into the variables and traits of propulsive power related to swimming efficiency have predominantly targeted on oblique assessments of land-based power and conditioning, encompassing isokinetic evaluations, one-repetition most (1-RM), countermovement bounce (CMJ), isometric peak torque and handgrip power [8–14]. Direct assessments of a swimmer’s maximal power and power manufacturing capabilities have beforehand concerned fully-tethered [11,15] and semi-tethered swimming [16,17], alongside evaluations of anaerobic and dash efficiency throughout 4 swimming strategies [9,18,19]. Still, though tethered swimming offers a direct evaluation of power manufacturing [11], present analysis has not established the optimum steadiness between maximal power and explosive energy that facilitates sooner and extra environment friendly strategies, thus enhancing dash swimming efficiency.

Sprint swimming is an occasion the place variations in motion strategies, each simultaneous (breaststroke and butterfly) and alternated (entrance crawl and backstroke), could also be emphasised and influenced by distinct main biophysical components, together with vitality and biomechanical points [20]. From a biomechanical perspective, the flexibility to reinforce mechanical and propulsive effectivity could possibly be related to the optimization of swimming method and the capability to steadiness maximal and explosive power, known as the dynamic power index (DSI) [3,9,21,22]. Considering that DSI profiling might be related to the 50 m dash swimming distance, the correlations between swimming efficiency and the profile parts of the higher and decrease limbs might differ individually between simultaneous and alternating strategies.

Consequently, biophysical components, encompassing vitality and biomechanical points, shouldn’t be independently examined. The advanced relationship between higher and decrease limb neuromuscular efficiency, power technology throughout fully-tethered swimming, anaerobic vital velocity (AnCV) and swimming efficiency at 50 m stays controversial, with no consensus concerning the bilateral and unilateral limbs that instantly affect the biomechanics of dash swimming notably in age-group. Notwithstanding the obvious inconsistencies in some accessible outcomes, there’s a compelling crucial to reinforce the event of age-group swimmers, notably throughout the pubertal interval, when maturity standing can considerably affect a swimmer’s development, improvement and efficiency [23]. Therefore, the needs of this research have been: (i) to conduct a multivariate evaluation of age-group swimmers’ efficiency to find out which variables are predominant to attain higher performances when analyzing the distinction between intercourse in two swimming strategies (entrance crawl and butterfly) and (ii) determine the least set of predictors that discriminate the intercourse variations.

With this in thoughts, we additionally intend to supply necessary and helpful data which will assist coaches, power and conditioning and sport scientists to enhance the event and understanding traits of propulsive power related to swimming efficiency, and enhance success alternatives of their coaching classes and competitions. Besides, we hypothesized that variations in swimming efficiency throughout strategies are related to a minimal set of key physiological and biomechanical predictors, particularly AnCV, tethering power, and higher and decrease limb dynamic power index (DSI).

Materials and strategies

Testing procedures

We carried out a potential cohort research utilizing descriptive, comparative, correlational, and multivariate evaluation to evaluate physiological variables (i.e., AnCV), biomechanical components (e.g., tethering power and stroke mechanics — stroke size [SL], stroke fee [SR] and stroke index [SI]) and neuromuscular efficiency (i.e., DSI of higher and decrease limbs) affecting efficiency throughout intercourse and strategies. Testing was carried out throughout the closing 4 weeks main as much as the National Age–Group Championships. Assessments have been carried out on 5 separate events between the primary macrocycle (January -April, 2025) of a standard three-peak preparation program.

On the primary go to, contributors underwent a complete evaluation of their anthropometric knowledge, physique composition, and organic maturation. Subsequently, on the identical day, a second testing session was executed, comprising a maximal 50 m entrance crawl swimming evaluation in a 25 m pool. On the next day, the dynamic power index (DSI) for each the higher and decrease limbs was assessed. On the third day, the anaerobic vital velocity (AnCV) was assessed with most effort trials of 10 m, 15 m and 25 m in entrance crawl and butterfly, with a 30 min relaxation interval between strategies. The fourth day included a 30 s maximal tethered swimming power evaluation, carried out with a specialised tethered swimming power equipment (Swimforce V1.0.0, Germany) for each entrance crawl and butterfly strategies, with a 30 min interval between the trials. Finally, an all-out 50 m butterfly swimming efficiency was carried out in a 25 m pool on the closing appointment.

Anthropometry, physique composition and organic maturation

The standing top was measured utilizing ultrasonic top meter by which routinely measures top for improved enter accuracy (X-Contact 357S, Jawon Medical Co., Ltd., Korea) and physique mass and physique mass index (BMI; kg·m-2) have been evaluated utilizing bioelectrical impedance evaluation (BIA; Body Composition Analyzer: X-Contact 357S, Jawon Medical Co., Ltd., Korea), carried out by a professional anthropometrist with over fifteen years of expertise, guaranteeing compliance with established anthropometric measurement protocols in keeping with the strategies described by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry [30]. The organic maturity offset was decided by calculating the age at peak top velocity (age-at-PHV) [24]. Weight, top, seating top and intercourse have been all components in a selected calculation. The maturity offset is a numerical worth that measures what number of years a person is away from their peak top velocity (PHV) age. A maturity offset could be constructive (+) or adverse (-) exhibiting what number of years the participant has been within the sport after reaching PHV and what number of years the participant has to go earlier than reaching PHV, respectively.

Neuromuscular efficiency

The lower-limb dynamic power index (DSI) was calculated because the ratio of peak power throughout the countermovement bounce (CMJ) to peak power throughout the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), primarily based on knowledge extracted from their respective force-time curves [25]. The CMJ have been evaluated at a 1000 Hz pattern fee using the commercially accessible Ok-deltas twin power platforms (Kinvent Physio, Montpellier, France). Peak power measurements from these evaluations encompassed dominant CMJ peak power (N), non-dominant CMJ peak power (N), and whole CMJ peak power (N), which have been utilized for additional investigation. The isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) was carried out on the Ok-deltas twin power platforms 60 s subsequent to the CMJ. In this check, age-group swimmers exerted maximal power by pulling a bar and urgent their ft in opposition to the power platform for five seconds. Peak power values, together with dominant and non-dominant IMTP peak power (N), and whole IMTP peak power (N) have been derived from the force-time curves for subsequent evaluation.

Peak forces (N) from each the CMJ and the IMTP have been used for subsequent evaluation of the decrease limb dynamic power index (DSI). To comprehensively assess power traits, the unilateral power asymmetry index was additionally calculated for each CMJ and IMTP, which serves as an analysis of maximal isometric power. This index was decided by computing the share distinction between the dominant (D) and non-dominant (ND) limbs. The dominant limb was methodically outlined because the one which exhibited the upper peak power throughout the check. The asymmetry index was calculated utilizing the next components: (D − ND)/ D × 100 [22].

For the part of higher limb DSI, ballistic push-up and isometric grip power have been used to find out higher extremity DSI from Ok-deltas twin power platforms (Kinvent Physio, Montpellier, France) [25]. The ballistic push-up check was carried out at a sampling fee of 1000 Hz utilizing the Ok-deltas twin power platforms (Kinvent Physio, Montpellier, France). Age-group swimmers positioned their palms at roughly shoulder width on a Ok-deltas twin power platform and lowered their chests till contact with the plate was made [25]. The peak power measurements from this check, together with Dominant push-up peak power (N), Non-dominant push-up peak power (N), and Total push-up peak power (N), have been recorded for subsequent evaluation. [25].

The isometric grip power was measured utilizing a Ok-Grip Dynamometer (Kinvent Physio, Montpellier, France) for a period of 5 s, 60 s after finishing the ballistic push-up, with a 30 s relaxation time between all sides. The peak power values recorded have been dominant grip power peak power (N), non-dominant grip power peak power (N) and whole grip power peak power (N). Peak forces (N) from the ballistic push-up and static grip power exams have been utilized for subsequent evaluation for higher limb DSI. The unilateral power asymmetry index of the ballistic push-up and static grip power check was decided as the share distinction between the dominant limb and the non-dominant limb as proposed by Bishop et al. [22].

Tethered swimming power

The tethered swimming power was measured utilizing a load-cell system (Swimforce V1.0.0, Germany), which recorded knowledge at a frequency of 100 Hz and had a most capability of 1,000 N. The system was located on a beginning block 5 m distance, sloping at an inclination of 5.7° to the water floor [26]. The maximal tethered swimming exams for the entire crawl and butterfly method have been carried out in separate testing classes. Force knowledge was persistently gathered throughout a 30 s maximal effort interval. The knowledge was subsequently imported into Acqknowledge 4.0 (BIOPAC Systems, Inc., CA, USA) and filtered with a 15 Hz cut-off digital filter (finite impulse response, FIR – Window Blackman −61 dB), as established by Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) evaluation to scale back artifact noise [26]. The key power variables derived from the person force-time curves included the imply power at every 10 s interval and the fatigue index [26,27].

Anaerobic vital velocity (AnCV)

Anaerobic efficiency for entrance crawl and butterfly swimming strategies was assessed utilizing the AnCV methodology that initially tailored for swimming from the vital energy idea that gives a dependable measure of an athlete’s anaerobic capability [28,29]. This strategy, widely known in swimming analysis which was calculated for every age-group swimmer by analyzing the slope of the distance-time (Dd-t) relationship, primarily based on swimming efficiency instances for 10, 15 and 25 m over time [28,29]. All swimming efficiency instances for the ten m, 15 m, and 25 m trials have been meticulously recorded by two skilled researchers utilizing Seiko S140 chronometers. To guarantee distinctive inter-observer reliability, the ultimate time utilized was the common of the 2 recorded measures, primarily based upon their values not differing by greater than 0.20 seconds [28,29]. A ten-minute relaxation interval was strictly enforced between every swimming session to make sure adequate restoration. The regression mannequin is expressed as y = ax + b, the place y denotes the space lined and x represents time. In this context, the coefficient an is primarily acknowledged because the short-distance velocity coefficient (slope), whereas additionally being acknowledged for its typical that means within the literature as a part of the anaerobic vital velocity (AnCV). The fixed b corresponds to the y-intercept of the regression line [28,29].

Statistical evaluation

Descriptive statistics are offered as imply ± commonplace deviation (M ± sd). The normality assumption was assessed utilizing the Shapiro–Wilk check, the place no important violations have been seen. Sex variations have been firstly in contrast in a univariate trend utilizing Student t check; Cohen’s d values have been additionally calculated and interpreted as follows: < 0.20 (trivial), 0.20 to 0.59 (small), 0.60 to 1.19 (reasonable), 1.20 to 1.99 (massive), 2.0 to three.9 (very massive), and > 4.0 (extraordinarily massive) [31]. Then, the results of intercourse and organic maturation on anthropometric and physique composition, neuromuscular efficiency (higher and decrease limbs DSI), tethering power, AnCV and swimming method kinematics (SI) have been examined utilizing a multivariate evaluation of covariance (MANCOVA) and eta squared (ƞ2) was used as a measure of defined variance. Further, utilizing solely variables that had a statistically important impact, a ahead stepwise discriminant operate evaluation was employed to determine the smallest set of variables that maximizes the variations between sexes for every swimming method. The statistical analyses have been carried out utilizing SPSS 25.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, US), significance degree was established at alpha = 0.05.

Results

Descriptive statistics for age, anthropometric and physique composition, organic maturation, neuromuscular efficiency, AnCV, tethered power and swimming efficiency variables of girls and boys age-group swimming in entrance crawl and butterfly swimming method are proven in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. Substantial intercourse variations have been recognized within the chosen variables (p < 0.05), except for the CMJ asymmetry index, ITMP asymmetry index, decrease limb DSI, push-up asymmetry index, grip power asymmetry index and higher limb DSI in each swimming strategies, in addition to AnCV and SR for butterfly.

When controlling for organic maturation, the MANCOVA outcomes (Table 3) revealed important outcomes for every variable set solely within the swimming tethered power. A complete of 21 variables indicated that boys swimmers outperformed women swimmers, with ƞ2 starting from 23% (anthropometry and physique composition) to 47% (tethered swimming power). For butterfly, the MANCOVA outcomes (Table 4) revealed no important outcomes throughout all multivariate exams with a complete of 20 variables by which boys outperformed women swimmers and the ƞ2 assorted from 7% (tethered swimming power) to 29% (decrease limbs neuromuscular efficiency).

Table 5 studies the principle outcomes of the ahead stepwise discriminant operate, and reveals the very best smaller set of the earlier twenty-one variables that finest discriminates the intercourse and are so as of significance of whole push-up peak power and physique top in entrance crawl and whole push-up peak power and stroke index from the very best smaller set of the earlier twenty variables in butterfly, respectively.

Discussion

This research investigated the multivariate profiles of age-group swimmers by intercourse in entrance crawl and butterfly strategies, controlling for organic improvement, and recognized the minimal set of predictors that differentiate sexes. This research offered complete proof that development and maturation, AnCV, tethering power and the DSI of each higher and decrease limbs play pivotal roles in figuring out 50 m dash swimming efficiency in age-group swimmers. Multivariate evaluation revealed important sex-based variations throughout physiological and biomechanical variables, with boys swimmers outperforming women in a number of key domains, even after controlling for organic maturity. Total push-up peak power and physique top distinguished intercourse variations in entrance crawl, whereas whole push-up peak power and stroke index differentiated intercourse in butterfly. Thus, these findings provide assist to the proposed hypotheses and in addition spotlight the complexity of efficiency determinants throughout swimming strategies.

The current research, contemplating intercourse variations, demonstrated that boys outperformed women on a number of anthropometric, neuromuscular, and tethered-force traits commonly noticed in analysis on younger swimmers [2,3,32]. In together with describing these anticipated variations, our findings improve present information by figuring out probably the most important parts that differentiate sex-specific dash traits. Beyond confirming anticipated intercourse variations, our findings improve present information by figuring out the principal parts that distinctly differentiate sex-specific dash options. Utilizing a multivariate mannequin that includes development and maturation [24], upper- and lower-limb DSI [21,22], short-distance velocity coefficients from the AnCV [28,29], tethered-force outputs [11,15] and stroke kinematics [23], we decided a minimal however extremely discriminative set of variables that successfully differentiates dash efficiency traits between girls and boys.

From the ahead stepwise discriminant evaluation it was recognized that whole push-up peak power was the strongest discriminant variable in each entrance crawl and butterfly strategies, highlighting the vital significance of upper-body explosive power in short-distance dash swimming. This metric doubtless displays a mix of muscular energy, interlimb coordination and neuromuscular management, all of that are important for efficient propulsion [3,9,13]. Moreover, in entrance crawl, physique top was a secondary predictor, suggesting the added mechanical benefit of longer limbs and SL in alternating strategies [32,34].

In distinction, SI was a key differentiator in butterfly, indicating the position of stroke effectivity and fluid coordination in simultaneous strategies, which require extra exact motor timing and technical management [33,38]. Moreover, the stronger discriminant energy of SI in butterfly signifies that stroke effectivity and motor coordination might have heightened significance in simultaneous strategies in comparison with alternating ones. Therefore, coaching methods for younger swimmers mustn’t solely emphasize power improvement but additionally goal method refinement, notably in butterfly, the place technical execution seems extra delicate to differentiating efficiency [33].

Sprint swimming, encompassed by each simultaneous (breaststroke and butterfly) and alternating strategies (entrance crawl and backstroke), is set by completely different necessary biophysical parts, together with vitality and biomechanical parts [20]. Previous research in younger swimmers try to understand how anthropometric components, development and maturation and higher/decrease limbs variables related to swimming method (biomechanics, energetics and effectivity) affect efficiency [10,13,20,32]. The impression of improvement and maturation on athletic efficiency is well-documented, particularly all through adolescence, characterised by quick organic modifications [35].

The current research reveals notable intercourse variations in anthropometric measurements, neuromuscular efficiency, AnCV and tethering power variables, even when adjusting for maturity, highlighting the developmental disparities between younger girls and boys swimmers. Boys have been taller and heavier than women, with larger values of the physique mass index, whereas being much less superior of their organic maturation. Some anthropometric traits could also be particularly useful in swimming, as excessive limb size and low physique floor space can enhance propulsion and reduce drag, notably in dash occasions the place hydrodynamic and propulsive effectivity over quick distances is essential [32,34].

From the attitude of neuromuscular efficiency in dash swimming, notably within the 50 m freestyle and butterfly, understanding the interaction between explosive power, limb-specific power manufacturing, and stroke mechanics is important for optimizing efficiency and tailoring coaching interventions. Such occasions necessitate explosive power, excessive swimming frequency and environment friendly transference of power over your entire swimming cycle [3,21]. From this angle, the outcomes confirmed that boys persistently exhibited higher peak power outputs in each higher (e.g., push-ups and grip power) and decrease limbs (e.g., countermovement bounce, isometric mid-thigh pull), together with enhanced tethered swimming power and anaerobic capability, notably in entrance crawl. This discovering is supported by varied research indicating that dry-land power and energy variables, notably explosive higher limb, correlate with swimming efficiency [5,9,12,26].

Interestingly, though appreciable efficiency variations, notably as measured by higher and decrease limb DSI, boys had larger absolute power outputs than women. However, the DSI values exhibited no variations throughout sexes, indicating that the equilibrium between maximal and explosive power persists between sexes, even when absolute power capability diverges. Higher DSI values amongst boys on this research counsel a superior skill to transform maximal power into practical explosive actions. This is particularly necessary in sprints, the place response time (in take-off) and stroke effectivity (SI) are vital. Girls, whereas typically biologically extra mature in early adolescence, might exhibit decrease DSI resulting from larger fats mass proportions and fewer neuromuscular drive effectivity, components that impression the flexibility to precise energy quickly. This helps the notion that DSI is a maturity-independent indicator of neuromuscular operate, helpful for evaluating efficiency capability in youth athletes [35]. Besides, this discovering corroborates the precept that continued participation in appropriately structured power and conditioning applications all through adolescence is important for optimizing neuromuscular improvement [32,36,37].

Despite variations in absolute efficiency values, and power and energy outputs between girls and boys, this research recognized no variations in higher (7.1–12.2%) and decrease limb (6.1–10.9%) asymmetry indices. This set of proof would possibly counsel that bilateral power steadiness is constant throughout sexes at this stage of improvement. From a sensible perspective, the preservation of interlimb symmetry throughout sexes is encouraging, notably in a sport like swimming, the place symmetrical motion is prime. This was fascinating as extreme asymmetry, sometimes outlined as interlimb variations exceeding 10–15%, has been related to elevated harm threat and impaired motion mechanics [22,35]. Furthermore, earlier analysis indicated that in-water asymmetry is extra carefully related to alterations in swimming method generated by the aquatic atmosphere than with muscular imbalances [14]. Further, in-water asymmetry is predominantly affected by technical variations to hydrodynamic forces and respiratory patterns quite than by muscular imbalances on dry land [38].

Tethered swimming power presents an in-depth analysis of in-water propulsive power primarily based on the force-time curve, together with common power at every 10 s interval and the fatigue index [27]. In the entrance crawl, the disparity in imply power between girls and boys assorted from 27.60 N throughout the preliminary 10 s to 21.59 N within the final 10 s interval. In butterfly, boys exhibited larger efficiency in comparison with women, with a imply power distinction growing from 13.59 N within the preliminary 10 s to 14.29 N within the closing 10 s, consequently confirming their stronger propulsive functionality even after adjusting for organic maturity. Moreover, boys demonstrated a smaller fatigue index in comparison with women in each entrance crawl (−8.52%) and butterfly (−6.75%), indicating higher muscle endurance and fatigue resistance, important for sustaining method and velocity all through the latter portion of dash efforts. The present findings exhibit that boys exhibit a higher skill to supply and keep excessive power ranges than women throughout all tethered variables, supporting earlier analysis that established a robust relationship between tethered power and dash swimming velocity, which necessitates excessive ranges of coordinated bilateral muscular activation in each simultaneous and alternating strategies [26,27].

From a physiological perspective in dash swimming, AnCV serves as a vital metric of anaerobic vitality techniques, particularly important in age-group athletes, the place fast developmental modifications affect swimming efficiency. In the present research, intercourse distinction in AnCV was noticed throughout entrance crawl efficiency, with boys demonstrating larger values than women (1.54 vs. 1.45 m·s ⁻ ¹), whereas no such distinction was evident within the butterfly method (1.49 vs. 1.42 m·s ⁻ ¹). This discovering underscores the technique-specific nature of energetic demand and mechanical effectivity in dash swimming [28,29,40].

The larger AnCV values in boys, regardless of their comparatively decrease common organic maturity relative to ladies on this age group, point out a sex-specific benefit within the recruitment and utilization of vitality techniques pertinent to the entrance crawl. This might end result from a mix of neuromuscular effectivity, elevated lean muscle mass and biomechanical efficacy in producing and sustaining propulsion [39,40]. Furthermore, the shortage of notable intercourse disparities in AnCV for butterfly might point out the upper technical and metabolic necessities of this method, which may diminish the efficiency benefits related solely to muscle power. This was an fascinating end result since butterfly swimming necessitates enhanced coordination, symmetrical power software, and exact timing, thereby diminishing the intercourse efficiency disparity all through early developmental phases [33,39].

Notably, the present findings present quite a few sensible implications for coaches and sports activities scientists engaged with age-group dash swimmers. For boys, power and conditioning for boys ought to give attention to enhancing upper-body explosive power, as peak push-up power was probably the most important predictor of dash efficiency in each strokes. Because boys exhibit considerably higher absolute power and propulsive functionality, applications ought to combine specialised power-focused exercises. These modalities instantly enhance fast power technology and upper-limb propulsion, proving them very helpful for optimizing short-distance dash efficiency. Furthermore, the numerous impression of physique top on entrance crawl efficiency signifies that taller boys would possibly derive advantages from coaching targeted on extending stroke size and optimizing distance per stroke, consequently enhancing biomechanical effectivity in high-speed swimming.

The findings counsel that for ladies, enhancing stroke effectivity particularly the SI in butterfly may end in extra important efficiency enhancements than focusing completely on power technology. Girl confirmed comparable DSI values however decrease absolute power outputs, indicating that technical ability might compensate for power limitations in early adolescence. Consequently, coaches need to prioritize technique-driven classes, incorporating propulsion timing drills, underwater video suggestions, and rhythm-coordination progressions that improve simultaneous arm-leg synchronization in butterfly stroke. Importantly, each sexes require a balanced program of dry-land and aquatic coaching, as upper-body neuromuscular power and technical proficiency affect dash efficiency. Integrating intensive upper-body power coaching with SR and SL interplay workouts can improve entrance crawl propulsion. Butterfly coaching ought to emphasize timing, streamlined management, and bilateral power symmetry. These directions remodel multivariate knowledge into approaches for creating sex-responsive dash swimming.

Despite this research offers precious insights by analysing the multivariate profiles of age-group swimmers by intercourse in entrance crawl and butterfly strategies, controlling for organic improvement and figuring out a minimal set of sex-differentiating predictors, it’s essential to acknowledge a number of limitations which will have an effect on the interpretation of the findings and affect future analysis instructions. First, pattern measurement was quite small (n = 30), but adequate for the current multivariate statistical analyses. However, it’s instructed to think about, in additional research, a bigger pattern measurement to enhance the applicability of the findings to wider populations, encompassing varied age demographics and aggressive tiers. Second, though we managed for organic maturation utilizing maturity offset, this methodology offers solely an estimation and will not completely mirror particular person hormonal or skeletal maturity. The lack of direct evaluation of pubertal standing might introduce variance in developmental standing that impacts efficiency metrics. Lastly, the usage of dry-land neuromuscular assessments (e.g., push-up power, CMJ, IMTP) and their extrapolation to in-water efficiency should be interpreted cautiously since they don’t totally seize the advanced neuromuscular coordination and hydrodynamic calls for of swimming.

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